#27: Discourse on Method by Rene Descartes

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100 books, book review, books, classics, Descartes, philosophy, religion

Nietzsche has dominated my philosophical readings of late, so I decided to shift gears and try a new thinker.  A quick trip to Half Price Books and I was ready to delve into Descartes.  I had some familiarity with Descartes but had never read any of his writings.  His Discourse on Method seemed like the perfect place to start.

The full title of this work is actually Discourse on the Method for Conducting One’s Reason Well and for Seeking the Truth in the Sciences.  For some reason, it is more commonly known simply as the Discourse on Method.  In this short treatise, Descartes outlines his plan to examine all of the things he held to be true and determine whether they can be known with certainty through nothing more than reason and demonstration.  He distinguishes his efforts from classical skepticism by recognizing that there are some truths that can be absolutely known.  The most basic of these is his famous “I think, therefore I am”.  He goes on to demonstrate the necessary existence and perfection of God, and then to generally discuss certain truths about man, the heavens, and the physical world. 

This book has long been considered one of the most important works in modern philosophy, and with good reason.  Descartes’ method for examining the truths of the world has had a tremendous influence on the methods of later philosophers and the methods of natural scientists.  He writes with a clarity and honesty that is refreshing compared to many other philosophers.  While I disagree with some of the logic he employs to arrive at some of his supposedly incontrovertible truths, I applaud his efforts and admire his methods.  I specifically disagree with his proof of the existence of God.  It is essentially, Anselm of Canterbury’s ontological proof restated in a slightly different formula.  While interesting and apparently sound from a logical standpoint, this method of proving the existence of God requires that the individual making the argument believe in God to begin with.  It is a bit of philosophical reverse engineering.  If you believe that God exists, then the ontological proof seems valid.  If you doubt that God exists, the ontological proof will not persuade you.  This critique is certainly not reason enough to disregard Descartes’ Discourse.  I highly recommend it to anyone with an interest in philosophy.

The Current Count

27 Read, 73 To Go

#17: The Antichrist by Friedrich Nietzsche

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100 books, book review, books, Nietzsche, philosophy, religion

I once again find myself in the position of apologizing after being absent from the blogosphere for nearly a month.  I can’t claim Jeopardy as an excuse this time.  Instead, I will blame it on my unwavering commitment to devote the best of my energies towards educating the young minds of today into the future leaders of tomorrow.  I can actually see the sarcasm dripping from the computer screen as I read the previous sentence.  To be perfectly honest, I just needed a break.  I have been busy with teaching and taking students to debate tournaments, but that is true for most of the year.  For the past few weeks I deliberately took a step back from reading and did a bit of vegetating.  That came to an end over the past weekend, when I completed The Antichrist by Friedrich Nietzsche.

Nietzsche wasn’t overly concerned with making friends with his philosophical writings, and The Antichrist is a prime example of that alienating tendency.  It should be noted that the title has a dual meaning, with Antichrist in German meaning both Antichrist in the personified sense and Antichristian.  In this book, Nietzsche establishes himself as a sort of Antichrist by developing a directly Antichristian line of philosophical thought.  Nietzsche’s disdain for Christianity goes beyond the merely intellectual into the realm of personal antipathy.  His delight in tormenting the Christian world is palpable as you turn the pages.  He really, really does not like the Christian Church.  As someone who comes from a Christian background, I was hesitant to read a book that I knew would be so challenging to the belief system that has surrounded me since birth.

Nietzsche’s criticisms are based on the notion that the early Christian church distorted the teachings of Jesus in an effort to empower the weak and suppressed elements throughout the Roman Empire.  Nietzsche argues that Jesus never spoke of sin and punishment or of a denial of the material world.  Instead, he believes that Jesus was a psychological type known as the redeemer.  The redeemer displays an absolute intolerance for pain.  Resistance leads to pain, and the redeemer therefore avoids resistance at all costs.  This avoidance leads to a willing acceptance of the world as it is, including the powerlessness of the redeemer.  This inspires a feeling of peace and happiness that constitutes “the Kingdom of Heaven.”  Nietzsche thinks this redeemer is an imperfect type, but prefers it to the image of Christ developed by the church.

According to Nietzsche, it was the early church fathers (particularly St. Paul) who distorted this simple message in an effort to exert power from a position of weakness.  This is an extension of the philosophy or religion of resentment (of which Judaism is the prime example) that Nietzsche had previously discussed in On the Genealogy of Morals.  These early fathers used the idea of an afterlife (not mentioned by Jesus according to Nietzsche) to force adherents to follow a strict set of rules (also not mentioned by Jesus) that center around denying the urges and instincts of the body.  This denial of the body stems from weakness.  The early Christians lacked bodily strength and worldly power, so they established the possession of such power as proof of a sinful way of life.  Ultimately, this denial is the root of the nihilism that Nietzsche thought was omnipresent in the Europe of his day.  These arguments are all made with a great deal of vitriol.

It has been the tendency of many Christian writers since Nietzsche to dismiss him as a heretic or atheist and condemn his arguments altogether.  I think this is a logical fallacy.  To argue that because Nietzsche is wrong in his disbelief of God he must also be wrong about everything else is a hasty generalization.  A thinker of Nietzsche’s influence and intellectual ability deserves a reasonable consideration.  I don’t intend to take on the role of Nietzschean apologist, but I will admit that I like the man.  His writings are entertaining and thought-provoking, even if not always right.  In the case of The Antichrist, I agree with some of Nietzsche’s arguments but oppose his general condemnation.  His chief concern throughout most of his works is to combat the denial of the body and its natural senses and instincts.  This has always been one of my concerns with religion.  I have never understood why so many Christian theologians throughout history have been so diametrically opposed to the body.  The idea that we were all hopelessly corrupted by original sin has always troubled me.  I cannot believe that an omnipotent and omnibenevolent creator would condemn his entire creation to a lifetime of depravity based on the mistakes of the original man.  I do not, however, think that condemns Christianity as a whole.  I think it is possible to embrace the Christian ideals of love and kindness without denying that there is a natural value and worth in our physical world and our natural urges.  These urges can become corrupt and overpowering, but should not be condemned outright.  Happily, I think there has been a tendency in some circles of Christian thought to place less emphasis on sin and condemnation and focus instead on living out the generous ideals that constitute the real foundation of the faith.  This is a very abbreviated discussion of the issues raised by Nietzsche and my responses to them, but I think this post has gone on long enough. 

The Current Count:

17 Read, 83 To Go

#56: Fear and Trembling by Soren Kierkegaard

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100 books, book review, books, Kierkegaard, philosophy, religion

After thirteen laborious days, I can finally cross another book off of my list.  Soren Kierkegaard is one of those writers whom I have always intended to read at some point, but had never quite managed to tackle.  Thanks to a fortuitous find at the Half Price Books Labor Day sale, that has changed.  Fear and Trembling is Kierkegaard’s consideration of the story of Abraham’s near-sacrifice of his son Isaac.  Despite its small size (only 150 pages), this book requires a tremendous amount of concentration and mental effort.  That effort was definitely well worth it. 

Fear and Trembling is divided into several sections.  The first is a preface from Kierkegaard’s pseudonym, Johannes de silentio.  This is followed by an exordium and a Speech in Praise of Abraham.  Finally, there is a section of Problemata in which Kierkegaard presents three major questions: Is there a teleological suspension of the ethical?; Is there an absolute duty to God?; and Was it ethically defensible of Abraham to conceal his purpose from Sarah, from Eleazar, and from Isaac?  The first half of the book, consisting mainly of the speech in praise of Abraham, is relatively straightforward and contains some wonderful examples of Kierkegaard’s literary talent.  The meat of the book, however, lies in the Problemata.  This is where the reading gets rather dense at times, and many sections require multiple reads to become intelligible.  Kierkegaard is writing in a dialectical style based on Hegel’s philosophy, which means that he uses several terms in a very specialized manner.  Once you clear that hurdle, the arguments become more clear and Kierkegaard’s genius becomes more dazzling.

Kierkegaard’s explanation of what it means to have faith, based on Abraham’s example, is truly remarkable.  What many people take for granted as the first step necessary in becoming a believer of any religion, Kierkegaard identifies as an ultimate goal reached by precious few.  What Abraham demonstrates is a willingness to go beyond the bounds of normal ethics due to a divine command that cannot be made understandable to any other person.  In order to have faith, Abraham was forced to separate himself from and be placed in opposition to humanity and its moral code.  What made Abraham’s act most remarkable was not merely his willingness to obey the command, but the absolute belief that somehow he would not lose Isaac despite sacrificing him.  Kierkegaard makes it clear that Abraham did not think that he would not ultimately be made to sacrifice Isaac, but that despite killing his son, that son would somehow be restored to him.  The willingness to believe that on the strength of the absurd is, according to Kierkegaard, the mark of faith.

This is not a book that can be summed up in one short blog post.  It is laden with profundity to an incredible degree, and is not an easy read.  It is, however, extremely rewarding.  Rather than try to summarize further, I will simply say that any person interested in the nature of faith or the relationship between individual faith and universal morality needs to read this book.

The Current Count:

56 Read, 44 To Go

#16: The New Concise History of the Crusades by Thomas F. Madden

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100 books, book review, books, history, Middle East, religion

Professor Thomas Madden’s New Concise History of the Crusades is a textbook that reads like a novel.  In an easily digestible fashion, Madden explores the intricacies of European politics and religion that lead to the birth of the Crusading movement, and traces the development of that movement until it disappeared in the wake of the Protestant Reformation.  He follows the course of events in good detail, without drowning his reader in documentary evidence.  Each chapter has suggestions for further reading, with a list of original sources in translation.  Madden stays very focused on his topic and does not stray into discussions of events unrelated to the Crusades.  Some knowledge of the history of the High Middle Ages is helpful in placing Madden’s narrative in context, but is not necessary to enjoy or learn from this book.

Richard the Lionheart

The Crusades are a fascinating episode in world history.  They feature some of the most notable names of the Middle Ages, including Richard the Lionheart of England, Phillip II Augustus of France, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Saint Louis of France, and the noble barbarian of Romantic lore, Saladin.  The tales of chivalry and heroism from this period are awe-inspiring.  Anyone with an interest in the Crusades should begin by reading Madden’s book.

With the current unrest in the Middle East and the threat of Islamic terrorism, the Crusades have assumed a tremendous importance in the modern world.  Many writers have sought the source of present conflicts in the events of distant centuries.  Madden does an excellent job explaining the significance of the Crusades to the modern international situation, and dispels many of the myths that have come to be accepted about these endeavors.  He expertly refutes interpretations of the Crusade that attempt to put them in a modern context, and demonstrates the true nature of their genesis.  The final two chapters of the book should be required reading for anyone studying modern foreign relations.  I would highly recommend this book to anyone with an interest in medieval European history or the modern Middle East. 

The Current Count:

16 Read, 84 To Go

#15: Dialogue on Good, Evil, and the Existence of God by John Perry

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100 books, book review, books, philosophy, religion, theology

As the title suggests, my fifteenth book deals with some pretty big issues.  John Perry’s Dialogue on Good, Evil, and the Existence of God is a relatively short dialogue (70 pages) that features three friends arguing about issues at the heart of Christianity.  Christian minister Sam Miller is challenged by his atheist philosopher friend Gretchen Weirob to prove that belief in an omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent creator is not inconsistent with the recognition of a world in which suffering exists.  Miller, Weirob, and their mutual friend Dave Cohen discuss the nature of evil and of suffering, the ramifications of free will, and what it means to say that God is all-powerful and all-knowing.  Perry does an excellent job of exploring these fundamental theological issues in a way that makes sense to readers without a degree in philosophy.  He also offers suggestions for readings that will provide a deeper look at these issues.  Any philosophically minded person, Christian or not, would benefit from reading this book.  It is a great introduction to the works of Augustine in particular. 

The Current Count:

15 Read, 85 To Go